Tip-Tips Belajar Bahasa Inggris

Anda bisa belajar dan menguasai bahasa Inggris dengan baik secara otodidak, namun ada beberapa hal yg perlu diperhatikan.

1. Pilih buku pegangan (atau software) yang baik. Buku yang baik adalah buku yang mengajarkan secara lengkap semua aspek bahasanya, speaking, listening, reading, writing, dan grammar. “Tell Me More” cukup bisa diandalkan.
2. Ikuti panduan buku/software tersebut dengan utuh, langkah demi langkah. Jangan melompati suatu bagian karena merasa sudah bisa atau tidak perlu. Ikuti dengan disiplin dan sabar.
3. Tentukan waktu belajar setiap hari dan lakukan dengan disiplin. Biasakan belajar 1 jam setiap hari. Lebih baik seperti itu daripada belajar 3 jam di akhir pekan.
4. Biasakan diri dengan lingkungan ‘berbahasa inggris’. Dengarkan program radio berbahasa Inggris (BBC, Radio Australia), dan program televisi berbahasa Inggris, serta membaca bacaan-bacaan berbahasa Inggris (mis. Reader’s Digest).
5. Jangan malu untuk bertanya dan berlatih. Belajar bahasa tidak bisa secara instan tetapi secara bertahap. Yang diperlukan adalah ketekunan dan disiplin.

Language Planning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a language or language variety within a speech community. It is often associated with government planning, but is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even individuals. The goals of language planning differ depending on the nation or organization, but generally include making planning decisions and possibly changes for the benefit of communication. Planning or improving effective communication can also lead to other social changes such as language shift or assimilation, thereby providing another motivation to plan the structure, function and acquisition of languages.

Types of language planning

Language planning has been divided into three types:

1. Status planning : Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language.
2. Language status : Language status is a concept distinct from, though intertwined with, language prestige and language function. Strictly speaking, language status is the position or standing of a language vis-à-vis other languages. A language garners status according to the fulfillment of four attributes, described in the same year, 1968, by two different authors, Heinz Kloss and William Stewart. Both Kloss and Stewart stipulated four qualities of a language that determine its status. While Kloss and Stewart’s respective frameworks differ slightly, they emphasize four common attributes:

• Language origin – whether a given language is indigenous or imported to the speech community
• Degree of standardization – the extent of development of a formal set of norms that define ‘correct’ usage
• Juridical status

1. Sole official language (e.g. French in France and English in the United Kingdom)
2. Joint official language (e.g. English and Afrikaans in South Africa; French, German, Italian and Romansh in Switzerland)
3. Regional official language (e.g. Igbo in Nigeria; Marathi in Maharastra, India)
4. Promoted language – lacks official status on a national or regional level but is promoted and sometimes used by public authorities for specific functions (e.g. Spanish in New Mexico; West African Pidgin English in Cameroon)
5. Tolerated language – neither promoted nor proscribed; acknowledged but ignored (e.g. Native American languages in the United States)
6. Proscribed language – discouraged by official sanction or restriction (e.g. Basque, Catalan during Francisco Franco’s regime in Spain; Macedonian in Greece)

• Vitality – the ratio, or percent, of users of a language to another variable, like the total population. Kloss and Stewart both distinguish six classes of statistical distribution. However, they draw the line between classes at different percentages. According to Kloss, the first class, the highest level of vitality, is demarcated by 90% or more speakers. The five remaining classes in decreasing order are 70-89%, 40-69%, 20-39%, 3-19% and less than 3%. According to Stewart, on the other hand, the six classes are determined by the following percentages: 75%, 50%, 25%, 10%, 5%, and less than 5%.Together, origin, degree of standardization, juridical status, and vitality dictate a language’s status.

3. Functional domains

William Stewart outlines ten functional domains in language planning:

1. Official – An official language “function[s] as a legally appropriate language for all politically and culturally representative purposes on a nationwide basis.” Often, the official function of a language is specified in a constitution.
2. Provincial – A provincial language functions as an official language for a geographic area smaller than a nation, typically a province or region (e.g. French in Quebec)
3. Wider communication – A language of wider communication is a language that may be official or provincial, but more importantly, functions as a medium of communication across language boundaries within a nation (e.g. Hindi in India; Swahili language in East Africa)
4. International – An international language functions as a medium of communication across national boundaries (e.g. English)
5. Capital – A capital language functions as a prominent language in and around a national capital (e.g. Dutch and French in Brussels)
6. Group – A group language functions as a conventional language among the members of a single cultural or ethnic group (e.g. Hebrew amongst the Jews)
7. Educational – An educational language functions as a medium of instruction in primary and secondary schools on a regional or national basis (Urdu in West Pakistan and Bengali in East Pakistan)
8. School subject – A school subject language is a language that is taught as a subject in secondary school or higher education (e.g. Latin and Ancient Greek in English schools)
9. Literary – A literary language functions as a language for literary or scholarly purposes (Ancient Greek)
10. Religious – A religious language functions as a language for the ritual purposes of a particular religion (e.g. Latin for the Latin Rite within the Roman Catholic Church; Arabic for the reading of the Qu’ran)

Speech Act

Speech act is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language. The contemporary use of the term goes back to John L. Austin’s doctrine of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Many scholars identify ’speech acts’ with illocutionary acts, rather than locutionary or perlocutionary acts. Like with the notion of illocutionary acts, there are different opinions concerning the question what being a speech act amounts to. The extension of speech acts is commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting someone and congratulating.

Speech act is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language. The contemporary use of the term goes back to John L. Austin’s doctrine of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Many scholars identify ’speech acts’ with illocutionary acts, rather than locutionary or perlocutionary acts. Like with the notion of illocutionary acts, there are different opinions concerning the question what being a speech act amounts to. The extension of speech acts is commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting someone and congratulating.

Examples

• Greeting (in saying, “Hi John!”, for instance), apologizing (“Sorry for that!”), describing something (“It is snowing”), asking a question (“Is it snowing?”), making a request and giving an order (“Could you pass the salt?” and “Drop your weapon or I’ll shoot you!”), or making a promise (“I promise I’ll give it back”) are typical examples of “speech acts” or “illocutionary acts”.
• In saying, “Watch out, the ground is slippery”, Mary performs the speech act of warning Peter to be careful.
• In saying, “I will try my best to be at home for dinner”, Peter performs the speech act of promising to be at home in time.
• In saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, please give me your attention”, Mary requests the audience to be quiet.
• In saying, “Race with me to that building over there!”, Peter challenges Mary.

Classifying illocutionary speech acts

Searle (1975) has set up the following classification of illocutionary speech acts:

• Assertive = speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition

• Directives = speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action, e.g. requests,    commands and advice

• commissives = speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action, e.g. promises and oaths

• Expressive = speech acts that expresses on the speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards the proposition, e.g. congratulations, excuses and thanks
• Declarations = speech acts that change the reality in accord with the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms, pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husband and wife?

SPEECH SITUATION

Contexts of language uses such as ceremonies, fights, hunts, classrooms, conferences, parties.

WHAT IS AN UTTERANCE?

Definition

1. An utterance is a natural unit of speech bounded by breaths or pauses.
2. An utterance is a complete unit of talk, bounded by the speaker’s silence.

Discussion

Utterance does not have a precise linguistic definition. Phonetically an utterance is a unit of speech bounded by silence. In dialogue, each turn by a speaker may be considered an utterance.

Linguists sometimes use utterance to simply refer to a unit of speech under study. The corresponding unit in written language is text.

SPEECH COMMUNITY

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.

Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon, distinct social groups like high school students or hip hop fans (see also African American Vernacular English), or even tight-knit groups like families and friends. In addition, online and other mediated communities, such as many internet forums, often constitute speech communities. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group’s special purposes and priorities.

Kepemimpinan Pendidikan

Pendapat Beberapa Tokoh Tentang Kepemimpinan:

• Wirawan (2002:18), kepemimpinan sebagai proses pemimpin menciptakan visi, mempengaruhi sikap, perilaku, pendapat, nilai-nilai, norma dan sebagainya dari pengikut untuk merealisasi visi.

• Mc. Farland, kepemimpinan sebagai suatu proses dimana pimpinan digambarkan akan memberikan perintah/ pengarahan, bimbingan/ mempengaruhi pekerjaan orang lain dalam memilih dan mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan.

• Koontz (1986:506), kepemimpinan adalah pengaruh, kiat (seni), proses mempengaruhi orang-orang sehingga mereka mau berusaha secara sepenuh hati dan antusias untuk mencapai tujuan.

• Weber, kepemimpinan suatu kegiatan dalam membimbing suatu kelompok sedemikian rupa sehingga tercapailah tujuan kelompok itu yang merupakan tujuan bersama.

Analisis Fukuzawa Yukichi

Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) lahir pada 10 Januari 1835 di Nakatsu, Oita Prefecture. Fukuzawa adalah tokoh yang memelopori modernisasi Jepang. Ia juga adalah pendiri dan rektor pertama Universitas Keio, Jepang. Universitas Keio (Keio Gijuku Daigaku) adalah perguruan tinggi tertua dan salah satu yang paling prestisius di Jepang. Universitas ini didirikan pada tahun 1859 sebagai perguruan tinggi swasta yang fokus pada studi Barat dan Fukuzawa mendirikan fakultas pertamanya pada tahun 1890.

Sampai saat ini nama Fukuzawa masih tetap di kenal sebagai salah satu tokoh pendidikan dunia yang berasal dari Jepang. Beliau beridealis bahwa besarnya suatu bangsa adalah karena rakyatnya pintar dan pintarnya rakyat berasal dari pendidikan. Oleh karena itu, hingga saat ini Jepang telah mampu bersaing dengan Negara-negara barat karena keunggulanya di bidang ilmu pendidikan dan teknologi.

Fukuzawa Yukichi Tokoh Pemimpin Pendidikan Jepang

Siapakah tokoh yang wajahnya menghiasi uang kertas sepuluh ribu yen? Dia adalah Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) yang lahir pada 10 Januari 1835 di Nakatsu, Oita Prefecture. Fukuzawa adalah tokoh yang memelopori modernisasi Jepang. Ia juga adalah pendiri dan rektor pertama Universitas Keio, Jepang. Universitas Keio (Keio Gijuku Daigaku) adalah perguruan tinggi tertua dan salah satu yang paling prestisius di Jepang. Universitas ini didirikan pada tahun 1859 sebagai perguruan tinggi swasta yang fokus pada studi Barat dan Fukuzawa mendirikan fakultas pertamanya pada tahun 1890. 

Fukuzawa Yukichilah yang telah menyebarkan semangat keterbukaan dan menebarkan modernisasi di Jepang lewat perjuangan dan karya-karyanya dalam pendidikan. Tokoh intelektual Jepang yang akhirnya membuka mata Jepang akan adanya dunia lain selain negeri Jepang ini memang rajin membuat terobosan-terobosan untuk mengubah pandangan Jepang tentang gaijin (orang asing) dan kaigai (negeri asing).